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Volume 13, Issue 4, 132438 (1-8)
International Journal of Recycling Organic Waste in Agriculture (IJROWA)
https://dx.doi.org/10.57647/j.ijrowa-w1mq-2s51
Tatiana Wieczorko Bara´n1*
, Estelvina Rodr´ıguez Portillo2 
, Claudia Gonza´lez Britos1
1Faculty of Sciences and Technology, National University of Itapu´a, Encarnacio´n, Paraguay.
2Water Observatory, National University of Itapu´a, Encarnacio´n, Paraguay.
∗Corresponding author: [email protected]
Received:
21 August 2023 Revised:
11 November 2023 Accepted:
21 February 2024 Published online: 06 April 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
Results: The physical-chemical characterization of the compost presented 63.8% humidity; 1.35% nitrogen; 0.86% potassium; 0.51% phosphorus; 0.04% sodium; 1.52% calcium; 0.01% copper; 0.02% zinc; 0.56% magnesium; 0.07% manganese; 8.61% iron; 63.04% ash and a pH of 8.52, which indicate a high nutritional value for plants. The genera identified were Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., and Fusarium spp. The analysis of the environmental benefit resulted in 4 negative moderate impacts and 11 positive severe and moderate impacts.
Since the evolution of the economy of humanity, from hunt- ing to agriculture, great importance has been attached to the study of various procedures for sustainable agriculture because the annual global amount of organic solid waste in agricultural activities ranges from 76 million tons, which do not receive an adequate process and final disposal treatment, which causes pollution and degradation of the environment (A´ lvarez-Palomino et al., 2018). It was not until the end of the last century that research strengthened the search for fertilization alternatives from the waste generated to improve soils, guarantee crop profitability, and contribute
to consumer health (Cha´vez and Rodr´ıguez, 2016). Current agriculture explores alternatives that improve soil conditions, in which the organic approach stands out in some productive sectors. This strategy is aimed at improv- ing the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil to regenerate its structure and promote a more efficient yield of its crops (A´ lvarez-Palomino et al., 2018). This is based on the use and recycling of organic waste and the application of transformation methods such as composting, not only to mitigate environmental impacts but also to give them added value and improve the economy of the regions (Rojas-Gonza´lez et al., 2019).
In Paraguay, the main economic activity is carried out around the primary sector, mainly agricultural production of soybeans, corn, wheat, and livestock production with bovine (Dos Santos et al., 2020). This implies the generation of a large amount of waste from the agricultural sector, there- fore, options for the management of organic solid waste are proposed.
According to Nicola´s et al. (2012), the external applica- tion of organic matter is an excellent promoter of biological activity, with an increase in organic carbon and nitrogen con- tents, as well as humic substance contents (Rosas-Calleja et al., 2016). This information suggests that the production of compost from agricultural residues is a potential alternative to generate stabilized organic matter that allows increasing soil fertility. The management of agricultural waste through composting reduces elements of environmental contamina- tion and generates compost with added value, stable, and useful in agriculture (Herna´ndez-Ca´zares et al., 2016). In the agricultural activities of several countries, waste dis- posal is not carried out in a sanitary landfill or suitable area, the most economical option being the uncontrolled burning of the material. However, this generates harmful effects on the environment. Biomass burning causes 40% carbon dioxide, 32% carbon monoxide, 20% particulate matter, and 50% polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, emitted worldwide (Cha´vez and Rodr´ıguez, 2016).
Composting is a biological method that allows the trans- formation of organic waste into a relatively stable product (Carrio´n and Franco, 2015). It is a technique in which the biodegradation of organic matter is promoted by the action of microorganisms, generating its transformation into other chemical forms that form compost (Cha´vez and Rodr´ıguez, 2016). Composting allows us to reduce the amount of waste and take advantage of the nutritional content of the organic fraction, generating by-products with high added value from an environmental and economic approach. It is a low-cost technology, which guarantees that organic residues link their components in the cycle of the primary production chain, also allows for improved physical-chemical conditions of the soil, and increases crop productivity (Vargas-Pineda et al., 2019).
To achieve this, it is necessary to evaluate the quality of the compost generated from agro-industrial storage residues of plant origin as an environmental management alternative.
The composting process was carried out in an agricultural establishment in the city of Yatytay, department of Itapu´a, southern Paraguay.
The climate for this location is classified as Cfa, which refers to a humid subtropical climate (Ko¨ppen and Geiger, 1936). According to the Land Use Rationalization Project,
Regarding agroecological zoning, agricultural lands suit- able for intensive and extensive development of annual and perennial crops, livestock, forestry, or production activities predominate in the district (Lo´pez et al., 1995). According to the origin of the soil, 100% of the district corresponds to basalt, the drainage in a greater proportion is good, it presents a null and moderate rockiness in parts, and the landscape that dominates is the hill (Lo´pez et al., 1995).
The vegetable source of the compost analyzed in research was formed by agricultural silo residues composed of soy- bean, corn, wheat, oats, sunflower, and canola remains that go through a pre-cleaning process, in which they pass through a total of 12 sieves of different sizes, being 15 mm,
9 mm, and 3.5 mm for round grains and a 1.75 × 22 mm sieve for elongated grains. Then, these wastes are arranged
in a single pile outdoors during the harvest months (gener- ally January, February, July, and October) thus achieving thier natural decomposition.
Compost sub-samples were taken, 3 on the sides of the base and 1 on the tip, placed on a clean plastic canvas, di- vided into four equal parts, and two opposite parts separated. The procedure was repeated until a 1/2 kg sample was ob- tained, which was homogenized, placed in a plastic bag, and correctly identified (Salazar-Calvo et al., 2020). This procedure was carried out on site and the samples were
taken at ambient temperature, considering that the average annual temperature of the area is 20.6 ◦C.
In the laboratory, the physicochemical parameters such as
pH, nitrogen, and phosphorus were analyzed according to the Hach method; potassium, sodium, calcium, copper, zinc, magnesium, iron, and manganese according to the Perkin Elmer method; ash according to the ISO 5984:2002 method and humidity according to the method described in the ISO 6496:1999 standard.
In the Laboratory of Chemistry, Microbiology, and Broma- tology of the Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the National University of Itapu´a, Petri dishes were prepared with potato dextrose agar culture medium. Then, an initial suspension was prepared by weighing 10 g of compost sam- ple that was dissolved in 90 ml of distilled water. 2 dilutions and a blank were prepared. 0.1 ml of solution was taken and placed on the surface of the plate with culture medium. This was done in duplicate for each dilution and the plates
were incubated at room temperature (18-26 ◦C) for 5-10 days.
The quantification of microbial populations was made by the plate count method using a colony counter. The most pre- dominant morphotypes were isolated, microscopic mounts were prepared, and the description of morphological char-
acteristics and identification was carried out.
The macroscopic characteristics of the colony-forming units (CFU) were described 8 days after incubation, on the front and back in a Petri dish. This brief period can provide a pre- liminary view of the diversity and development of microbial colonies, but it is important to note that this period can limit the observation of slower-growing organisms. This cautious approach underlines the importance of considering time as a key factor in the complete and accurate identification of microbial diversity in the compost under study.
For the preliminary observations of fungi under the micro- scope, the adhesive tape method was used, which consists of extracting fragments of the colony by gently pressing the sticky side of the tape on the aerial mycelium of the fungus, placing the tape on an object holder with a drop of lactophenol blue and observe under the microscope the mor- phological characteristics of the mycelium and reproductive organs (Pacasa-Quisbert et al., 2017). The possible taxo- nomic identification of the genus was made by comparing with the literature of (Samson et al., 2014) and (Pacasa- Quisbert et al., 2017).
To carry out the analysis of the environmental bene- fits of the compost elaboration process, the positive and negative impacts that may arise from this activity were considered. The evaluation of the impacts was carried out through the Conesa method, which is an analytical method, by which the importance (I) can be assigned to each possible environmental impact of the exe- cution of the project, applying Equation 1 (Arboleda, 2008):
I = ±(3IN + 2EX + MO + PE + RV + SI (1)
+ AC + EF + PR + MC)
Where:
±: Nature of the impact, being + for positive impact or - for negative impact.
IN: Probable intensity or degree of destruction, being 1 for low intensity; 2 for medium intensity; 4 for high intensity, or 8 for very high intensity.
EX: Extension or area of influence of the impact, being 1 for a specific area of influence; 2 for a partial extension; 4 for a large area of influence, or 8 for full extensio´n.
MO: Moment or time between the action and the appear- ance of the impact, being 1 for long term; 2 for medium term, or 4 for immediate.
PE: Persistence or permanence of the effect caused by the impact, being 1 for fleeting; 2 for temporary, or 4 for per- manent.
RV: Reversibility, being 1 for short term; 2 for medium term, or 4 for irreversible.
SI: Synergy or reinforcement of two or more simple effects, being 1 for no synergism; 2 for synergistic, or 4 for very synergistic.
AC: Accumulation or effect of progressive increase, being 1 for simple, or 4 for cumulative.
EF: Effect, being 1 for indirect, or 4 for direct.
PR: Periodicity, being 1 for discontinuous; 2 for periodi-
cally, or 4 for continuous.
MC: Recoverability or possible degree of reconstruction by human, being 1 for immediate recoverable; 2 for medium- term recoverable; 4 for mitigable, or 8 for irrecoverable.
According to the values assigned to each criterion, the im- portance of the impact can vary between 13 and 100 units which, according to the method, establishes the following significance: less than 25 are irrelevant or compatible with the environment; between 25 and 50 are moderate impacts; between 50 and 75 are severe; above 75 are critical.
The physical-chemical characterization of the compost un- der study was carried out. Table 1 presents the characteris- tics of the analyzed sample expressed in percentages.
The laboratory results indicate that it is a material with a humidity greater than 50% which is ideal because the pres- ence of water is essential for the physiological needs of microorganisms since it is the means of transport of the soluble substances that serve as food to the cells and the waste products of the reactions that take place during this process.
It also has significant amounts of micronutrients such as calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, sodium, and zinc that contribute to enzymatic synthesis, microorganism
Variable | Result |
Humidity | 63.8% |
Nitrogen | 1.35% |
Potassium | 0.86% |
Phosphorus | 0.51% |
Sodium | 0.04% |
Calcium | 1.52% |
Copper | 0.01% |
Zinc | 0.02% |
Magnesium | 0.56% |
Manganese | 0.07% |
Iron | 8.61% |
pH | 8.52a |
ash | 63.04% |
a-: Is dimensionless
metabolism, and intracellular and extracellular transport mechanisms. The values reported by Rivas-Nichorzon and Silva-Acun˜a (2020) are similar for magnesium (0.65%), but not for calcium (0.68%), zinc (0.003%), and iron (0.0008%), which are below the found in this work. It is important to highlight the elevated iron value, which could be due to the characteristics of the soil where the starting materials were grown since ultisols tend to have a high iron adsorption capacity due to the presence of clay minerals, iron oxides, and other characteristic components of these soils (Lo´pez et al., 1995).
The pH has a direct influence on the microbial composting process. According to literature, the optimal range for the composting process is between 5.50 and 8.0. Compared to what was recently expressed, the result obtained is above the optimal range. In a study carried out by Barbaro et al. (2019), it was established that compost is alkaline be- cause it contains a lower proportion of exchangeable hydro- gen ions and a higher proportion of calcium and magnesium. Coincidentally, the compost analyzed in this work contains a high concentration of these micronutrients.
After 3 days of incubation of the sample, the plate colonies were counted. For the 10−1 concentration plates, on aver- age, 65 CFU were counted, for the 10−2 plates 58 CFU, and for the 10−3 dilution plates 21 CFU.
After 8 days of incubation of the plates, the macroscopic
and microscopic descriptions of the fast-growing fungal
colonies were made, the possible genera identified were Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. from the Trichoco- maceae family; Fusarium spp. of the Nectriaceae family. In Table 2 characteristics and the corresponding identification are described, according to the morphology observed at the macro and micro scale.
The most frequent organisms in the composting process are bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. The ratio of fungal to prokaryotic biomass in compost is approximately 2:1. In addition, the fungi existing in the compost use many carbon sources, mainly lignocellulosic polymers, which can survive in extreme conditions and are responsible for the maturation of the compost. The fungi most commonly found in compost materials are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Trichoderma, Chaetomonium, Acremonium, and Cladosporium (Dehghani et al., 2012; Rivas-Nichorzon and Silva-Acun˜a, 2020).
Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium fungi found in the analysis are important in the composting process due to their role in the decomposition of the most difficult and resistant components of organic matter; these fungi are known as primary degraders (Barrios and Sandoval, 2018).
Fungi of the Aspergillus genus have the ability to degrade cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, and also produce en- zymes such as cellulases and ligninases, which help break down these complex compounds into simpler molecules. Fungi of the genus Penicillium are also capable of breaking down a variety of organic substrates, including cellulose, starch, and protein. Some species produce enzymes such as amylases and proteases, which facilitate the breakdown of
Circular-shaped colony, white in color with a defined dark green dotted center; cottony. On the re-verse, the colony is circular, white, with a dull green center.
Fast-growing colony, matured in 3 days; white with abundant black dots; cottony texture. The reverse is white and circular.
Fast-growing colony as it matured in 3 days; brown; cottony, with a ye-llowish-brown underside.
Light pink colony and darker center; cottony texture.
Initially white; cottony surface. A greenish-blue center is observed. It presents exudates on the surface and pigmentation on the back.
a sp.: Unidentified species.
It presents hyaline, branched mycelium, with long, coenocytic conidiophores. Near the vesicle a rough part is formed, the vesicles are spherical, covered in 360◦, and contain 1 or 2 series of phialides.
Septate, hyaline mycelium, presents sub-spherical aspergilate heads, with two series of phialides, at an angle of 360◦, with round equinulate and black conidia.
Septate mycelium, hyaline, with coenocytic conidiophores and subspherical vesicles. Aspergilar, biseriate heads are observed, with abundant free, spherical, hyaline conidia.
The conidiogenous cells are mo-nophialid, long, and septate. The macroconidia have 3 to 5 septa and present a curved dorsal area and a more straight ventral area.
It has septate hyaline hyphae. The conidiophores have cylindrical se-condary branches, with smooth walls carrying phialides from which long unbranched chains of spores emerge, forming the characteristic brush of the genus.
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus terreus
Fusarium sp.a
Penicillium sp.a
Reduced dependency on chemical fertilizers | (+) | 12 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 55 | Severe |
Recovery of soil fertility | (+) | 12 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 55 | Severe |
Improves water retention in the soil | (+) | 8 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 43 | Moderate |
Improves the arrival of nutrients to plants | (+) | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 30 | Moderate |
Avoids the collection of waste and its transport to the treatment plant | (+) | 12 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 56 | Severe |
Reduction of infrastructure investment spending | (+) | 4 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 32 | Moderate |
Reduction of the cost of waste treatment | (+) | 12 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 58 | Severe |
Improves the physical-chemical properties of the soil | (+) | 8 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 43 | Moderate |
Reduction of erosive processes | (+) | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 31 | Moderate |
Increase in productive land uses | (+) | 4 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 32 | Moderate |
Increase in soil biodiversity | (+) | 8 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 43 | Moderate |
Generation of atmospheric emissions (gases from decomposition of organic matter) | (-) | 4 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 35 | Moderate |
Accident risk | (-) | 4 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 29 | Moderate |
Landscape alteration | (-) | 4 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 32 | Moderate |
Deterioration of air quality | (-) | 4 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 31 | Moderate |
a ±: Nature of the impact.
b IN: Probable intensity or degree of destruction.
c EX: Extension or area of influence of the impact.
d MO: Moment or time between the action and the appearance of the impact.
e PE: Persistence or permanence of the effect caused by the impact.
f RV: Reversibility.
g SI: Synergy or reinforcement of two or more simple effects.
h AC: Accumulation or effect of progressive increase.
i EF: Effect.
j PR: Periodicity.
k MC: Recoverability or possible degree of reconstruction by human.
these compounds. These fungi also help control the growth of pathogenic microorganisms during the composting pro- cess, as do some members of the Aspergillus genus.
The Fusarium genus is known for its ability to degrade lignin, a key component of plant cell walls. Additionally, some members of this genus can also break down other organic components, such as cellulose and hemicellulose. However, some Fusarium species can also be pathogenic to plants, so it is important to maintain a proper balance of their presence in the compost.
Taken together, the presence of Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., and Fusarium spp. in the compost is essential for the decomposition process of organic matter. These fungi break down the more complex components of organic materials and release nutrients and simpler compounds that are ben- eficial to plant growth. In addition, its activity contributes to the stabilization of the compost and the control of the proliferation of undesirable microorganisms.
Table 3 presents the results of the analysis of the environ- mental benefit of compost production, where the impacts, the variables with the numerical values assigned to them, and the product are presented.
100% (4) of the negative impacts belong to the moderate category, which means that they are not in a state of alert and therefore measures are required to minimize the impacts that occur.
Regarding the positive impacts, 64% (7) belong to the cat- egory of moderate and 36% (4) to the category of severe. These are manifested in the environment and the socio- economic environment with the reduction of dependence on chemical fertilizers, erosive processes, investment costs in infrastructure, cost of waste treatment; with the improve- ment of the physical-chemical properties of the soil and the arrival of nutrients to the plants. Also, it allows the increase of soil biodiversity, the recovery of soil fertility, and the improvement of water retention in the soil. It avoids the collection of waste and its transport to the treatment plant. That is why these positive impacts must be strengthened. A study conducted by Islam et al. (2019), in which the in- fluence of the addition of banana peel biochar in the soil was analyzed, shows that it is positive for plant growth and suggests an alternative to overcome the use of chemical fer- tilizers. In this way, they also highlight the positive impacts of the use of agricultural waste through recycling.
The results obtained in this research demonstrate the po- tential of using agro-industrial residues for the production of compost as a sustainable management alternative. The study reveals that the transformation of this waste into com- post not only contributes to reducing the amount of waste generated by the agri-food industry but also offers multiple environmental and agronomic benefits.
The use of agro-industrial residues for compost production is presented as an effective and sustainable solution for the proper management of this waste. The compost obtained offers a valuable contribution of nutrients to improve soil quality, reduce dependence on synthetic chemical fertilizers, and promote healthy crop growth.
Disposing of agro-industrial waste in landfills or sanitary landfills, at other times, was perhaps the only possible solu- tion. However, it is currently possible to reintegrate them into a circular economy, with other alternatives such as com- post production. According to Aguiar et al. (2022), this is the most economical alternative, with less risk that maxi- mizes its positive environmental impact.
The composting technique promotes the proper manage- ment of waste, the improvement of soil health, and the reduc- tion of the environmental footprint of the agri-food indus- try (Pacasa-Quisbert et al., 2017). This approach presents great opportunities to move towards a circular and environ- mentally friendly agricultural system while promoting the production of quality and sustainable food.
The authors confirm the study conception and design: Tatiana Wieczorko Bara´n, Estelvina Rodr´ıguez Portillo; data collection: Tatiana Wiec- zorko Bara´n, Claudia Gonza´lez Britos; analysis and interpretation of results: Tatiana Wieczorko Bara´n, Estelvina Rodr´ıguez Portillo, Claudia Gonza´lez Britos; draft manuscript preparation: Tatiana Wieczorko Bara´n. The results were evaluated by all authors, and the final version of the manuscript was approved.
The authors declare that they have no known com- peting financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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